Anytime Google does something new, folks pay attention. Guetzli is no exception to that, but the hype is a bit ridiculous on this one. First of all, Guetzli is NOT a JPG optimizer. Once you've saved a JPG, it is not useful to re-compress the image with Guetzli. It is a JPG compressor, one time only. It is meant to be used when saving a JPG from a PNG image or other lossless/high-quality input. Then, and only then, does it beat "normal" JPG encoders.
Additionally, images produced by Guetzli are not optimized. They can be further compressed by any standard JPG optimizer using progressive encoding. Our favorite JPG encoder is mozjpeg, and to date, I have not seen a better lossless JPG optimizer.
Lepton Optimizer
Download: https://urlcod.com/2vCaVR
This is a compression technology from Dropbox, and is useful only for compressing JPG images "at rest". While it is lossless, you must also have lepton to decompress and view your JPG. Without the decoder, your JPG images are inaccessible. Dropbox compresses images using lepton when they store them to their servers, and then when you want to download or view a JPG, they decompress it on the fly so you can view it again. There are no browsers, and no system viewers that can display lepton-encoded images natively. So if you want to save backup space and lepton-encode all your images, go right ahead. But don't put lepton-encoded images on your website, no one (including you) will be able to view them in the browser.
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It has been known for more than three decades [1] that the parton distribution functions (PDFs) of nucleons bound within nuclei, more simply referred to as nuclear PDFs (nPDFs) [2, 3], can be modified with respect to their free-nucleon counterparts [4]. Since MeV-scale nuclear binding effects were expected to be negligible compared to the typical momentum transfers (\(Q\gtrsim 1\) GeV) in hard-scattering reactions such as deep-inelastic lepton-nucleus scattering, such a phenomena came as a surprise to many in the physics community. Despite active experimental and theoretical investigations, the underlying mechanisms that drive in-medium modifications of nucleon substructure are yet to be fully understood. The determination of nPDFs is therefore relevant to improve our fundamental understanding of the strong interactions in the nuclear environment.
Lastly, nPDF extractions can sharpen the physics case of future high-energy lepton-nucleus colliders such as the Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) [13] and the Large Hadron electron Collider (LHeC) [14, 15], which will probe nuclear structure deep in the region of small parton momentum fractions, x, and aim to unravel novel QCD dynamics such as non-linear (saturation) effects. The latter will only be possible provided that a faithful estimate of the nPDF uncertainties at small x can be attained, similar to what was required for the recent discovery of BFKL dynamics from the HERA structure function data [16].
As a first phenomenological application of the nNNPDF1.0 sets, we quantify the impact of future lepton-nucleus scattering measurements provided by an Electron-Ion Collider. Using pseudo-data generated with different electron and nucleus beam energy configurations, we perform fits to quantify the effect on the nNNPDF1.0 uncertainties and discuss the extent to which novel QCD dynamics can be revealed. More specifically, we demonstrate how the EIC would lead to a significant reduction of the nPDF uncertainties at small x, paving the way for a detailed study of nuclear matter in a presently unexplored kinematic region.
In this section we review the formalism that describes deep-inelastic scattering (DIS) of charged leptons off of nuclear targets. We then present the data sets that have been used in the present determination of the nuclear PDFs, discussing also the kinematical cuts and the treatment of experimental uncertainties. Lastly, we discuss the theoretical framework for the evaluation of the DIS structure functions, including the quark and anti-quark flavor decomposition, the heavy quark mass effects, and the software tools used for the numerical calculations.
For instance, in deep inelastic lepton-nucleus scattering, the leading power contribution to the cross section can be expressed in terms of a hard partonic cross section that is unchanged with respect to the corresponding lepton-nucleon reaction, and the nonperturbative PDFs of the nucleus. Since these nPDFs are defined by the same leading twist operators as the free nucleon PDFs but acting instead on nuclear states, the modifications from internal nuclear effects are naturally contained within the nPDF definition and the factorization theorems remain valid assuming power suppressed corrections are negligible in the perturbative regime, \(Q^2 \gtrsim \) 1 GeV\(^2\). We note, however, that this assumption may not hold for some nuclear processes, and therefore must be studied and verified through the analysis of relevant physical observables.
We start now by briefly reviewing the definition of the DIS structure functions and of the associated kinematic variables which are relevant for the description of lepton-nucleus scattering. The double differential cross-section for scattering of a charged lepton off a nucleus with atomic mass number A is given by
where only the photon-exchange contributions are retained for the \(F_2\) and \(F_L\) structure functions. In Eq. (2.3) we have isolated the dominant \(F_2\) dependence, since the second term is typically rather small. Note that since the center of mass energy of the lepton-nucleon collision \(\sqrts\) is determined by
where hadron and lepton masses have been neglected, measurements with the same values for x and \(Q^2\) but different center of mass energies \(\sqrts\) will lead to a different value of the prefactor in front of the \(F_L/F_2\) ratio in Eq. (2.3), allowing in principle the separation of the two structure functions as in the free proton case.
As mentioned in Sect. 2, the non-perturbative distributions that enter the collinear factorization framework in lepton-nucleus scattering are the PDFs of a nucleon within an isoscalar nucleus with atomic mass number A, \(f_i(x,Q^2,A)\). While the dependence of the nPDFs on the scale \(Q^2\) is determined by the perturbative DGLAP evolution equations, the dependence on both Bjorken-x and the atomic mass number A is non-perturbative and needs to be extracted from experimental data through a global analysis.Footnote 1 Taking into account the flavor decomposition presented in Sect. 2.4, we are required to parameterize the x and A dependence of the quark singlet \(\Sigma \), the quark octet \(T_8\), and the gluon g, as indicated by Eq. (2.25) at LO and by Eq. (2.27) for NLO and beyond.
As highlighted by Fig. 3, the most significant difference between the fitting methodology used in nNNPDF1.0 as compared to previous NNPDF studies is the choice of the optimization algorithm for the \(\chi ^2\) minimization. In the most recent unpolarized [71] and polarized [93] proton PDF analysis based on the NNPDF methodology, an in-house Genetic Algorithm (GA) was employed for the \(\chi ^2\) minimization, while for the NNFF fits of hadron fragmentation functions [94] the related Covariance Matrix Adaptation-Evolutionary Strategy (CMA-ES) algorithm was used (see also [95]). In both cases, the optimizers require as input only the local values of the \(\chi ^2\) function for different points in the parameter space, but never use the valuable information contained in its gradients.
One of the drawbacks of the gradient descent approach, which is partially avoided by using GA-types of optimizers, is the risk of ending up trapped in local minima. To ensure that such situations are avoided as much as possible, in nNNPDF1.0 we use the Adaptive Moment Estimation (ADAM) algorithm [96] to perform stochastic gradient descent (SGD). The basic idea here is to perform the training on randomly chosen subsets of the input experimental data, which leads to more frequent parameter updates. Moreover, the ADAM algorithm significantly improves SGD by adjusting the learning rate of the parameters using averaged gradient information from previous iterations. As a result, local minima are more easily bypassed in the training procedure, which not only increases the likelihood of ending in a global minima but also significantly reduces the training time. 2ff7e9595c
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